Propolis is one of those bee products that doesn’t get as much attention as honey or royal jelly, but humans have actually been using it since at least 300 BC. The ancient Greeks, Egyptians, and Assyrians all documented its medicinal uses, both for internal consumption and external application. The name comes from Greek: “pro” meaning “in front of” and “polis” meaning “city” or “community.” Combined, it essentially means “defender of the city” - which makes sense when you understand what bees actually do with it.

What is propolis exactly?

Propolis is a resinous substance that worker bees create by collecting plant secretions - mucilage, gums, and resins - then mixing these with their own secretions and beeswax. The result has a waxy texture and can range in colour from green to brown to reddish, depending on which plants the bees visited.

Bees use propolis for several purposes in the hive. They apply it to build and repair structural damage, prevent moisture from entering, maintain stable humidity and temperature, and control airflow. But perhaps most importantly, propolis acts as an antimicrobial barrier. It protects larvae, stored honey, and honeycombs from bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms. Bees will even embalm small intruders (like mice that die in the hive) in propolis to prevent decay and contamination [1].

The composition varies depending on where and when bees collect their materials, but raw propolis typically contains approximately:

50% resin
30% wax
10% essential oils
5% pollen
5% various organic compounds (flavonoids, phenolic acids, esters, diterpenes, sesquiterpenes, lignans, aromatic aldehydes, alcohols) plus amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals

It’s this complex mix of bioactive compounds - particularly the flavonoids and phenolic acids - that has attracted research interest in propolis as a potential therapeutic substance.

What does the research say about propolis?

I should be upfront here: most propolis research involves small sample sizes and short intervention periods. The results are often promising but preliminary. Here’s what the current evidence shows.

1. COVID-19 treatment (adjunctive)

A randomised controlled trial with 124 hospitalised COVID-19 patients (average age 50) tested Brazilian green propolis extract alongside standard care. Patients receiving propolis had shorter hospital stays and fewer cases of acute kidney injury compared to standard care alone [2]. That said, this was a single-centre, open-label study. The results are interesting but hardly definitive.

2. Periodontal disease

Periodontitis affects an estimated 30-50% of the population in the United States, though only about 10% have severe forms. A meta-analysis of 8 randomised controlled trials found that propolis treatment reduced probing pocket depth compared with placebo [3]. The effect was modest, and the authors noted the need for larger studies.

3. Inflammation markers

A meta-analysis of 6 randomised controlled trials (406 participants) found that propolis supplementation reduced serum C-reactive protein (CRP) and TNF-α concentrations [4]. Both are markers of inflammation. Whether this translates to meaningful clinical benefits remains unclear.

4. Menstrual pain

This one caught my attention because the study was well-designed. A double-blind controlled trial gave 86 university students with primary dysmenorrhoea either 500 mg propolis capsules daily or placebo for two months. The propolis group reported lower pain scores on the visual analogue scale [5]. Primary dysmenorrhoea (menstrual cramps without underlying pelvic pathology) affects up to 93% of menstruating women, so if propolis genuinely helps, that’s potentially useful.

5. Diabetic foot ulcers

Diabetic foot ulcers are a serious complication - estimates suggest 19-34% of people with diabetes will develop one at some point, and they carry a 2.5-fold increased mortality risk compared to diabetics without foot wounds. A small randomised controlled trial (31 patients, 8 weeks) found that topical propolis reduced wound size compared to no treatment. The propolis group also showed improved antioxidant markers [6].

6. Common cold symptoms

A prospective study of 40 children with acute cold symptoms found that propolis nasal spray (used three times daily for 7 days) improved symptoms and quality of life [7]. The catch? No placebo control group, and 40 participants is quite small.

7. Blood sugar control in type 2 diabetes

A meta-analysis of 6 randomised controlled trials (373 adults with type 2 diabetes) found that propolis supplementation reduced fasting plasma glucose by about 13.5 mg/dL and HbA1c by 0.52% [8]. These are modest reductions. The intervention periods ranged from 56 to 180 days, with daily doses between 226 and 1500 mg. Fasting insulin and insulin resistance markers didn’t change significantly.

8. Chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis

Oral mucositis (inflammation and ulceration of the mouth lining) is a common and painful side effect of chemotherapy and radiation. A meta-analysis of 5 randomised controlled trials (209 cancer patients) found that propolis mouthwash significantly reduced the incidence of severe oral mucositis [9]. The protocol involved 5-15 ml used 2-3 times daily.

9. Wound healing

A feasibility study of 24 patients with diabetic foot ulcers found that applying propolis solution to wounds reduced ulcer area and accelerated healing over 6 weeks [10]. This aligns with traditional uses of propolis for wound care, though controlled trials are still needed.

10. Cardiovascular risk markers

A double-blind controlled study (67 adults, 90 days) found that propolis increased antioxidant capacity and raised HDL cholesterol (the “good” cholesterol) [11]. HDL helps prevent LDL oxidation and protects blood vessel walls. Whether propolis supplementation actually reduces cardiovascular events is unknown.

11. Recurrent ear infections in children

Otitis media is extremely common in children - roughly 50-85% experience acute otitis media by age 3. A controlled study of 122 children under 5 found that propolis solution (combined with zinc) reduced the frequency of recurrent ear infections and decreased antibiotic use over 3 months [12]. The combination makes it hard to attribute effects specifically to propolis.

12. Genital herpes

A controlled study compared propolis ointment to acyclovir (a standard herpes medication) and placebo for treating genital herpes lesions. Propolis performed comparably to acyclovir for healing lesions and local symptoms, and the rate of secondary infection was lower in the propolis group [13]. This is one of the older studies (2000) and hasn’t been replicated with larger samples.

13. Dentin hypersensitivity

If you’ve ever experienced sharp pain when eating ice cream or drinking hot coffee, you might have dentin hypersensitivity. It affects 4-74% of the population (that’s a wide range, I know), most commonly in people aged 20-50. A systematic review of 6 randomised controlled trials found that propolis applied to teeth with a microbrush reduced sensitivity, with no adverse effects reported [14].

14. Liver function markers

A meta-analysis of 6 randomised controlled trials found that propolis supplementation reduced aspartate aminotransferase (AST), a marker of liver cell damage [15]. It had no significant effect on other liver enzymes or lipid markers.

Side effects of propolis

Propolis has been used by humans for centuries and is generally considered safe for both oral consumption and topical application. That said, allergic reactions do occur. Symptoms can include:

Skin rashes
Local burning or irritation
Gastrointestinal discomfort
Other allergic symptoms

One thing to be aware of: allergic reactions may appear some time after starting use, not necessarily immediately.

Who should avoid propolis

People with bee or bee product allergies. If you’ve reacted to bee stings, honey, bee pollen, royal jelly, or aspirin (which contains salicylates, as does propolis), don’t use propolis.

People with asthma. Some researchers have raised concerns that certain propolis compounds could worsen asthma symptoms. There isn’t strong evidence either way, but caution seems reasonable.

People taking anticoagulants or with bleeding disorders. Some phytochemicals in propolis may have anticoagulant effects. If you have haemophilia, are taking blood thinners, or have surgery scheduled within 2 weeks, avoid propolis.

Pregnant women, breastfeeding mothers, young children, and people with liver or kidney impairment. Safety data in these populations is limited or absent. The cautious approach is to avoid it.

References

Simone-Finstrom M, Spivak M. Propolis and bee health: the natural history and significance of resin use by honey bees. Apidologie. 2010;41(3):295-311.
Silveira MAD, et al. Efficacy of Brazilian green propolis (EPP-AF®) as an adjunct treatment for hospitalized COVID-19 patients: A randomized, controlled clinical trial. Biomed Pharmacother. 2021;138:111526. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/labs/pmc/articles/PMC7980186/
Ganapathy K, et al. Effect of propolis on periodontal disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Periodontol. 2021;48(6):808-817. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33578659/
Jalali M, et al. The effects of propolis supplementation on inflammatory markers and C-reactive protein: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Complement Ther Med. 2020;50:102380. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32444060/
Jenabi E, Asle Toghiri M. A randomized controlled trial of propolis on primary dysmenorrhea. J Clin Diagn Res. 2019;13(3):QC01-QC04. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6737054/
Henshaw FR, et al. Topical application of the bee hive protectant propolis is well tolerated and improves human diabetic foot ulcer healing in a prospective feasibility study. J Diabetes Complications. 2019;33(7):527-532. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6757282/
Lana MA, et al. Evaluation of the efficacy and tolerability of a propolis extract in patients with seasonal allergic rhinitis. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr). 2018;46(1):21-29. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29254297
Karimian J, et al. The efficacy of propolis on markers of glycemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Phytother Res. 2019;33(6):1616-1626. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30950136
Noronha VR, et al. Propolis in oral health: A systematic review. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2018;2018:4389289. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30022350
Afsharpour F, et al. Propolis supplementation improves glycemic and antioxidant status in patients with type 2 diabetes: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Complement Ther Med. 2019;43:283-288. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25239451/
Mujica V, et al. The effect of propolis supplementation on serum antioxidant status, oxidative stress, and lipid profile in healthy adults: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Nutr Sci. 2017;6:e32. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28539963
Marchisio P, et al. Effectiveness of a propolis and zinc solution in preventing acute otitis media in children with a history of recurrent acute otitis media. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol. 2010;23(2):567-575. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20646352
Vynograd N, et al. A comparative multi-centre study of the efficacy of propolis, acyclovir and placebo in the treatment of genital herpes (HSV). Phytomedicine. 2000;7(1):1-6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10782483
Moraes G, et al. Propolis as a treatment for dentinal hypersensitivity: A systematic review. Clin Oral Investig. 2021;25(11):6385-6395. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34534811/
Malekinejad M, et al. Effect of propolis supplementation on liver enzymes and lipid profile: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials. J Diet Suppl. 2022;19(6):773-789. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34804893/